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nuclear waste - translation to ολλανδικά
![U-233]] for three fuel types. In the case of MOX, the U-233 increases for the first 650 thousand years as it is produced by the decay of [[Np-237]] which was created in the reactor by absorption of neutrons by U-235.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Activityofuranium233.jpg?width=200 "U-233]] for three fuel types. In the case of MOX, the U-233 increases for the first 650 thousand years as it is produced by the decay of [[Np-237]] which was created in the reactor by absorption of neutrons by U-235.")
![Total activity for three fuel types. In region 1, there is radiation from short-lived nuclides, in region 2, from [[Sr-90]] and [[Cs-137]], and on the far right, the decay of Np-237 and U-233.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Activitytotal1.svg?width=200 "Total activity for three fuel types. In region 1, there is radiation from short-lived nuclides, in region 2, from [[Sr-90]] and [[Cs-137]], and on the far right, the decay of Np-237 and U-233.")
![nuclear waste disposal centre]] at [[Gorleben]] in northern Germany](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Grüne protests against nuclear energy.jpg?width=200 "nuclear waste disposal centre]] at [[Gorleben]] in northern Germany")
.jpg?width=200 "Diagram of an underground low-level radioactive waste disposal site")
![access-date=2020-11-13}}</ref> near the [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant]] in [[Eurajoki]], on the west coast of [[Finland]]. Picture of a pilot cave at final depth in Onkalo.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Onkalo 2.jpg?width=200 "access-date=2020-11-13}}</ref> near the [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant]] in [[Eurajoki]], on the west coast of [[Finland]]. Picture of a pilot cave at final depth in Onkalo.")
![The Waste Vitrification Plant at [[Sellafield]]](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Sellafield Vitrification Plant, interior.jpg?width=200 "The Waste Vitrification Plant at [[Sellafield]]")
![Anti-nuclear weapons]] protest march in Oxford, 1980](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Anti-nuclear weapons protest, UK 1980.JPG?width=200 "Anti-nuclear weapons]] protest march in Oxford, 1980")
![commercial launch]] of the Russian [[Strategic Rocket Forces]] R-36 [[ICBM]]; also known by the NATO reporting name: [[SS-18 Satan]]. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest [[throw weight]] missile delivery system ever built.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Dnepr rocket lift-off 1.jpg?width=200 "commercial launch]] of the Russian [[Strategic Rocket Forces]] R-36 [[ICBM]]; also known by the NATO reporting name: [[SS-18 Satan]]. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest [[throw weight]] missile delivery system ever built.")
![[[Edward Teller]], often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb"](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Edward Teller (1958)-LLNL.jpg?width=200 "[[Edward Teller]], often referred to as the \"father of the hydrogen bomb\"")
![Demonstration against nuclear testing in [[Lyon]], France, in the 1980s.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Essais nucleaires manif.jpg?width=200 "Demonstration against nuclear testing in [[Lyon]], France, in the 1980s.")
![Nagasaki]], Japan. They were large and could only be delivered by [[heavy bomber]] aircraft](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Fat man.jpg?width=200 "Nagasaki]], Japan. They were large and could only be delivered by [[heavy bomber]] aircraft")
![fission]] weapon designs](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Fission bomb assembly methods.svg?width=200 "fission]] weapon designs")
![The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear proliferation.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Flag of IAEA.svg?width=200 "The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear proliferation.")
![[[Robert Oppenheimer]], principal leader of the [[Manhattan Project]], often referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb".](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg?width=200 "[[Robert Oppenheimer]], principal leader of the [[Manhattan Project]], often referred to as the \"father of the atomic bomb\".")
![Protest in Bonn against the [[nuclear arms race]] between the U.S./NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg?width=200 "Protest in Bonn against the [[nuclear arms race]] between the U.S./NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981")
![This view of downtown [[Las Vegas]] shows a [[mushroom cloud]] in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby [[Nevada Test Site]].](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/NNSA-NSO-787.jpg?width=200 "This view of downtown [[Las Vegas]] shows a [[mushroom cloud]] in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby [[Nevada Test Site]].")
![Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The Black dot indicates the location of the [[Vela incident]].](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Rael Nuclear use locations world map.png?width=200 "Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The Black dot indicates the location of the [[Vela incident]].")
![Ukrainian]] workers use equipment provided by the U.S. [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/SS-24 silo destruction.jpg?width=200 "Ukrainian]] workers use equipment provided by the U.S. [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.")
![A photograph of [[Sumiteru Taniguchi]]'s back injuries taken in January 1946 by a U.S. Marine photographer](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Sumiteru Taniguchi back.jpg?width=200 "A photograph of [[Sumiteru Taniguchi]]'s back injuries taken in January 1946 by a U.S. Marine photographer")
![The basics of the [[Teller–Ulam design]] for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Teller-Ulam device 3D.svg?width=200 "The basics of the [[Teller–Ulam design]] for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.")
![terminal]], or re-entry phase, of the [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Trident C-4 montage.jpg?width=200 "terminal]], or re-entry phase, of the [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s")
![The [[USSR]] and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the [[Cold War]] until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg?width=200 "The [[USSR]] and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the [[Cold War]] until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.")
![heavier lift]] Russian [[SS-18 Satan]], could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development of [[MIRV]]s was to make complete [[missile defense]] difficult for an enemy country.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/W87 MX Missile schematic.jpg?width=200 "heavier lift]] Russian [[SS-18 Satan]], could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development of [[MIRV]]s was to make complete [[missile defense]] difficult for an enemy country.")
Ορισμός
Βικιπαίδεια
Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, nuclear decommissioning, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing. The storage and disposal of radioactive waste is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment.
Radioactive waste is broadly classified into low-level waste (LLW), such as paper, rags, tools, clothing, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity, intermediate-level waste (ILW), which contains higher amounts of radioactivity and requires some shielding, and high-level waste (HLW), which is highly radioactive and hot due to decay heat, so requires cooling and shielding.
In nuclear reprocessing plants about 96% of spent nuclear fuel is recycled back into uranium-based and mixed-oxide (MOX) fuels. The residual 4% is minor actinides and fission products the latter of which are a mixture of stable and quickly decaying (most likely already having decayed in the spent fuel pool) elements, medium lived fission products such as strontium-90 and caesium-137 and finally seven long-lived fission products with half lives in the hundreds of thousands to millions of years. The minor actinides meanwhile are heavy elements other than uranium and plutonium which are created by neutron capture. Their half lives range from years to millions of years and as alpha emitters they are particularly radiotoxic. While there are proposed - and to a much lesser extent current - uses of all those elements, commercial scale reprocessing using the PUREX-process disposes of them as waste together with the fission products. The waste is subsequently converted into a glass-like ceramic for storage in a deep geological repository.
The time radioactive waste must be stored for depends on the type of waste and radioactive isotopes it contains. Short-term approaches to radioactive waste storage have been segregation and storage on the surface or near-surface. Burial in a deep geological repository is a favored solution for long-term storage of high-level waste, while re-use and transmutation are favored solutions for reducing the HLW inventory. Boundaries to recycling of spent nuclear fuel are regulatory and economic as well as the issue of radioactive contamination if chemical separation processes cannot achieve a very high purity. Furthermore, elements may be present in both useful and troublesome isotopes, which would require costly and energy intensive isotope separation for their use - a currently uneconomic prospect.
A summary of the amounts of radioactive waste and management approaches for most developed countries are presented and reviewed periodically as part of a joint convention of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
